Hidden Colors is a documentary about the real and untold history of people of color around the globe. On the contrary, reliance on emotion is associated with misinformation sharing (Weeks, 2015) or believing in conspiracy theories (Garrett & Weeks, 2017; Martel et al., 2019). FactsCan, launched in 2015, offers independent, non-partisan fact-checking of Canadian politicians and political news stories. In other words, misinformation categories have lower lexical diversity. Nat Commun 10(1):114, Article In this paper, I propose a model that can differentiate between 7 different categories of content: clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science, rumors, and finally, factual sources. Finally, misinformation spreads six time faster than factual information (Vosoughi et al., 2018), that is the speed challenge. Regardless of why its shared, misinformation surrounding COVID-19 has been so rampant that the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a parallel infodemic to describe the scale of fake news and its potential impact on efforts to limit the viruss spread. Entropy is the average amount of surprise per word in each text, therefore serves as a measure of uncertainty (higher lexical diversity) and it is calculated with the following formula: where p(x) and q(x) are the probability of word x appearing in each text. Specifically, the procedure is to simulate each variable setting all the other variables at their means and the variable I am interested in at its starting point (lower range). December. Psychological studies of both misinformation (also called fake news), which refers to any claims or depictions that are inaccurate, and disinformation, a subset of misinformation intended to mislead, are helping expose the harmful impact of fake newsand offering potential remedies. Intercult Commun Stud XVI: 3, Neuman WR, Just MR, Crigler AN (1992) Common knowledge: News and the construction of political meaning. Click on those links. Pew Research Center, 12, Singh L, Bode L, Budak C, Kawintiranon K, Padden C, Vraga E (2020) Understanding high- and low-quality URL Sharing on COVID-19 Twitter streams. 15. Proc Conference (Long Papers) 2:422426, Weeks BE (2015) Emotions, partisanship, and misperceptions: how anger and anxiety moderate the effect of partisan bias on susceptibility to political misinformation. At the very core of this struggle is the ability to define who we are. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 117(14):76847689, Kononova A, Joo E, Yuan S (2016) If I choose when to switch: Heavy multitaskers remember online content better than light multitaskers when they have the freedom to multitask. Others have built on Schwarzs early findings, showing that people are more likely to fall for misinformation when they fail to carefully deliberate the material, whether or not its aligned with their political views (Bago, B., et al., Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, Vol. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. Players assume the role of a manipulator and practice interacting with others in a social media simulation. Here, the algorithm considers clusters A and B and the formula calculates the average of the distances taken over all pairs of individual elements a A and b B. 98, 2016; Swami, V., et al., Cognition, Vol. an unbelievable amount of blustery hooplaw that is not only factually incorrect but painfully shallow and excruciatingly reaching, whats so sad about . Correspondence to During the 2020 presidential election, Twitter flagged tweets that contained misleading information about election resultsa form of prebunkingand in December, Facebook announced that it would begin removing posts with false claims about COVID-19 vaccines. Moreover, beyond sentiment, there are other measures for evocation to emotions: morality. Technol Soc 13:259278, Swabey L, Nicodemus B, Taylor MM, Gile D (2016) Lexical decisions and related cognitive issues in spoken and signed language interpreting. But even die-hard Harvard buffs are not likely to know all of these Harvard firsts and historical snippets. Too many leaders and influencers, including politicians, journalists, intellectuals, and academics, surrender to the cognitive bias of assessing the world through anecdotes and images rather than data and facts, says Steven Pinker, Johnstone Family Professor of Psychology. The interpretation is as follows: If perplexity equals 5, it means that the next word in a text can be predicted with an accuracy of 1-in-5 (or 20%, on average). James Gunn and Peter Safran Named Co-CEOs Of DC Studios, 10 Things You Didnt Know about Jee Young Han, Hulu Welcomes Newcomers To The Black Stories Hub. Future Gener Comput Syst 117:4758, Hansen LK, Arvidsson A, Nielsen FA, Colleoni E, Etter M (2011) Good friends, bad news-affect and virality in twitter. Those beliefs predicted a subsequent decrease in willingness to wear a mask or take a vaccine (Social Science & Medicine, Vol. PubMed Central videos on a site like YouTube should include sources in the video or the comments section. Appl Soft Comput 97:106754, Article Lexical diversity is defined as a measure of the number of different words used in a text (Beheshti et al., 2020). Researchers have also started to document the scope of the infodemic. On the other side, an increase in readability shows 9.96% more probability of being classified as hate speech (CI=[0.087, 0.111]) and an increase of 40.19% of being classified as junk science (CI=[0.390, 0.414]). Soc Netw Anal Mining 7(1):114. Res Polit 113. This model allows not only researchers but also practitioners and non-technical audiences to understand, and potentially adopt the model. Psychological research backs several methods of countering misinformation. Digit Journal 6(2):154175, Bannard C, Lieven E, Tomasello M (2009) Modeling childrens early grammatical knowledge. The Hidden Colors Documentary is all about the hidden history of those that come from aboriginal, More, and African descent. Misinformation can be spread without ill intent, while disinformation and mal-information are used to deliberately mislead people. 1439 To my knowledge, this is the paper with higher number of categories and higher number of news articles. That's why the latest UN Climate Reports say climate disinformation is a threat to climate action.. A new scorecard by Friends of the Earth, Avaaz, and Greenpeace USA shows that . https://arxiv.org/abs/1712.00547, Mocanu D, Rossi L, Zhang Q, Karsai M, Quattrociocchi W (2015) Collective attention in the age of (mis)information. Google Scholar, Berger JA, Milkman KL (2009) What makes online content viral? 24, No. In other words, the easier to read a text is, the more likely it pertains to the clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, or rumor categories. We use this data to gauge whether something is true or false, but it is not often that we see this data in its raw form. Person Soc Psychol Rev 19(4):307342, Hee CVan, Jacobs G, Emmery C, Desmet B, Lefever E, Verhoeven B, Hoste V (2018) Automatic detection of cyberbullying in social media text. These results indicate that there are significant differences between content characteristics from factual sources and misinformation content in the form of clickbait, conspiracy theories, fake news, hate speech, junk science and rumors. 2A, B one can observe that the Euclidean distance between factual news and rumors is 37.68, with fake news is 35.69, with hate content is 34.84, with conspiracy theories is 34.33, with clickbait is 21.71 and with junk science is 12.00. Abrams, Z. The sentiment analysis variable highlights how factual news are, in essence, neutral (sentiment=0.19, [CI=0.84, 0.45]), in concordance with its journalistic norm of objectivity (Neuman et al., 1992). And misinformation isnt the only factor in hesitancy toward COVID-19 vaccines. Judgem Decis Making 10(6):549563, Pennycook Gordon, Rand DG (2019) Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. In addition, this method can help technology companies, media outlets and fact-checking organizations to prioritize the content to be checked. (1980). Conspiracy theories, including around COVID-19, receive more support from men than women (Cassese, E. C., et al., Politics & Gender, Vol. In Proceedings of the eighth ACM international conference on web search and data mining (pp. An analysis of misinformation from five samples across the United States, Europe, and Mexico showed that substantial portions of each populationanywhere from 15% to 37%believed misinformation about COVID-19 in April and May 2020, representing what the authors call a major threat to public health. People who were more susceptible to misinformation were less likely to report complying with public health recommendations and less likely to say theyd get vaccinated (Royal Society Open Science, Vol. If they then encounter that misinformation later, it no longer sticks.. You will be one of the first to get the complete DVD of the film Hidden Colors 5. One is to debunk incorrect information after it has spread. As for the sentiment of the content, a one-unit increase in negative sentiment is associated with an increase in the log odds of a content being clickbait \(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{clickbait}}} = - 0.01\), p<0.001), conspiracy theory (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{conspiracy}}} = - 0.02\), p<0.001), fake news (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{fake}}\,{\mathrm{news}}} = - 0.02\), p<0.001) or hate speech (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{hate}}} = - 0.03\), p<0.001), indicating that these categories tend to employ a highly negative and sentimental language; while a one-unit increase in the positive sentiment score is associated with an increase in the log odds of a content being junk science (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},{\mathrm{junk}}\,{\mathrm{science}}} = 0.02\), p<0.001) or a rumor (\(\beta _{{\mathrm{sentiment}},\,{\mathrm{rumor}}} = 0.01\), p<0.001). Communication and persuasion. Proceedings-IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. These results indicate that increasing the perplexity of content increases the probabilities of a content being classified as junk science, clickbait or factual news while decreasing perplexity augments the probability of a piece of text being classified as conspiracy theory, fake news, hate speech or rumors. Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. CEUR Workshop Proc 718:9398, Pennycook G, Rand D (2017) The implied truth effect: attaching warnings to a subset of fake news stories increases perceived accuracy of stories without warnings. Whats most needed, though, is research that shows whether media literacy efforts are effective outside of the context in which theyre taught, says Schwarz. This is important because this type of model have been rarely available (Miller et al., 2017). As for sentiment analysis, highly negative values (sentiment=32) give the following probabilities for each category: factual (p=0.015, CI=[0.013, 0.016]), clickbait (p=0.149, CI=[0.143, 0.155]), conspiracy theories (p=0.189, CI=[0.182, 0.195]), fake news (p=0.205, CI = [0.201, 0.212]), hate speech (p=0.301, CI=[0.292, 0.308]), junk science (p=0.062, CI=[0.060, 0.065]) and rumor (p=0.077, CI=[0.074, 0.080]). Included Items. These results show that the junk science and fake news categories are both the most sensible to changes in the readability score in opposite directions: increasing the readability score significantly increases the probability of being categorized as junk science while decreasing it significantly increases the probability of a given content being categorized as fake news. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 118(26):e2024292118, Risdal M (2016) Getting real about fake news | Kaggle, Rosenquist JN, Fowler JH, Christakis NA (2011) Social network determinants of depression. The labeling of each website was done through crowdsourcing following the instructions as follows (Zimdars, 2017): Step 1: Domain/Title analysis. Harvard sets date for Claudine Gay inauguration. Fake news, fast and slow: deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. If we later hear a correction, it doesnt invalidate our thoughtsand its our own thoughts that can maintain a bias, even when we accept that the original information was false.. volume9, Articlenumber:162 (2022) Their speedy development, in addition to well-grounded skepticism of the medical establishment among minority groups, also contribute to public uncertainty. This is why I will employ a multinominal logistic regression, a technique suitable for mutually exclusive variables with multiple discrete outcomes. The result is a full probability distribution that I use to compute the average expected value and the confidence intervals. On the other hand, the separations in the first group appear at lower heights (meaning, more similarities among these categories). Heidi Larson, author of Stuck: How Vaccine Rumors Startand Why They Dont Go Away and founder of the Vaccine Confidence Project, talks about the roots of vaccine misbeliefsand how we can change them. In similar contexts, improving media literacy to process more complex ideas will likely reduce the cognitive load associated with factual information (Ellis & Yuan, 2004; Swabey et al., 2016) and, therefore, the prevalence of misinformation. Other groups have created media literacy resources geared toward older adults, who are just as capable of spotting hoaxes but have been disproportionally targeted by disinformation sources (Brashier, N. M., & Schacter, D. L., Current Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. First, I calculated the Euclidean distance (sum of squared distances and taking the square root of the resulting value), forcing values that are very different to add a higher contribution to the distance among observations. Though research directly tying misinformation to behavior is still limited, exposure to fake news does have real-world consequences. Inform Process Manag 56(5):18491864, Beheshti Z, Nejadansari D, Barati H (2020) The relationship between emotional intelligence, Lexical diversity and the syntactic complexity of EFL Learners written productions. This is not an optical illusion, but rather color adaptation of the eye. A tendency to see the world as a threatening, nonrandom place without fixed definitions of moralityor to use intuition over analytical thinking when processing informationfurther predicts conspiratorial belief (Moulding, R., et al., Personality and Individual Differences, Vol. The four-part documentary takes a look at the history of black. For lower levels of complexity (readability=6.78), the probabilities for a given text being classified in each category is: factual (p=0.015, CI=[0.013, 0.017]), clickbait (p=0.145, [CI=0.140, 0.149]), conspiracy theories (p=0.160, CI=[0.156, 0.166]), fake news (p=0.373, CI=[0.366, 0.380]), hate speech (p=0.106, CI=[0.102, 0.109]), junk science (p=0.060, CI=[0.058, 0.061]) and rumor (p=0.141, CI=[0.136, 0.147]). These results show the predicted probabilities for all choices of the multinominal logit model I employed. Despite its limitations, the obtained results also suggest interesting paths for future research. Psychological research has shown that peoples memories can be made wrong by information they learn after the event theyre recalling. That is, how factual news differ from different types of misinformation in terms of (1) evocation to emotions (sentiment analysispositive, neutral, negativeand appeal to moral language as a challenge to social identity), and (2) cognitive effort needed to process the content (both in terms of grammatical featuresreadabilityand lexical featuresperplexity). The challenges of educating the public about a deadly pandemic while also dealing with an outbreak of misinformation. PLoS ONE 17(1):e0261768, Chakraborty K, Bhatia S, Bhattacharyya S, Platos J, Bag R, Hassanien AE (2020) Sentiment analysis of COVID-19 tweets by deep learning classifiersa study to show how popularity is affecting accuracy in social media. In this paper I propose a method that is independent of network behavior, information cascades or their virality. Adv Exp Soc Psychol 14:159. Through Natural Language Processing, or computational linguistics, I can calculate this set of k features for N texts. Misinformation: Spreading false information (rumors, insults, and pranks). This result indicates that the misinformation categories that are more similar to reliable news are click bait and junk science. (Eds. And who we are is not a historical process, but a people, as alive today as we ever were. 3. In this type of problem, each text in a set of news articles can be represented as a set of k features denoted by the feature vector \(f \in {\Bbb R}^k\). https://github.com/several, 27, Taddicken M, Wolff L (2020) Fake News in science communication: emotions and strategies of coping with dissonance online. A lover of great stories and epic tales, Tom is a fan of old and new-school ideas. Pasquetto, I. V., et al.,The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2020, The debunking handbook 2020 The results show that misinformation, on average, is easier to process in terms of cognitive effort (3% easier to read and 15% less lexically diverse) and more emotional (10 times more relying on negative sentiment and 37% more appealing to morality). He describes the "great media blunders . Fact-checking is the best way to tell if a news story or other claim is true. BMJ 370 (pp. Decis Support Syst 46(3):695703, Gamallo P, Campos JRP, Alegria I (2016) Comparing two basic methods for discriminating between similar languages and varieties*. Cailin OConnor and James Owen Weatherall. Therefore, the proposed method does not add friction to the user experience of a given platform. PubMed Central BMJ (Online) 338(7685):2326, Frenda SJ, Nichols RM, Loftus EF (2011) Current issues and advances in misinformation research. ACL Association for Computational Linguistics, Rathje S, Van Bavel JJ, van der Linden S (2021) Out-group animosity drives engagement on social media. Whats the whole story? While extant research has been dedicated to differentiating between factual and fake news aiming at binary classification (Choudhary & Arora, 2021; de Souza et al., 2020), there is not much evidence regarding rumors, conspiracy theories, junk science or hate speech altogether. As for the categories with higher usage of moral language, there are clickbait news (morality=4.38, [CI=4.34, 4.43]), hate speech (morality=4.41, [CI=4.36, 4.46]), conspiracy theories (morality=4.44, [CI=4.39, 4.48]) and, finally, fake news (morality=4.66, [CI=4.61, 4.70]). Stare at the dot for 30-45 seconds. In these situations, misinformation often escalates into violence, like in the case of ethnic brutality in India (McLaughlin, 2018) or violence against doctors in Latin America (Taylor, 2020). Am J Polit Sci 44(2):347, Koenecke A, Nam A, Lake E, Nudell J, Quartey M, Mengesha Z, Goel S (2020) Racial disparities in automated speech recognition. In contrast to previous measures, the technique employed to quantify morality is highly sensitive to text length (with longer texts having higher probabilities of containing moral words), therefore, I calculate the morality measure as moral words per 500 words in each text. That process can get things right, but it can also get things wrong, producing rumors that turn out to be false.. Science, 359(6380), 10941096; Bovet, A., & Makse, H. A. Hidden colors: a documentary using Half truths/misinformation to Extort The black community - YouTube AboutPressCopyrightContact usCreatorsAdvertiseDevelopersTermsPrivacyPolicy & SafetyHow. "Hidden Colors" is a shining beacon of enlightenment. A multidisciplinary effort is needed to understand better how the Internet spreads content and how citizens process the news and information they consume. Check the date it was published and the website URL, and read the body of the story to be sure its what it claims to be. 359, No. In contrast, using the results provided in this paper, these platforms may use the same system without the need to explicitly identify the source as misleading and recommending related stories based on the assessment of the readability, perplexity, emotionality, and morality levels of the content being shared. The Documentary look like an amateur film with a lot of misinformation and disinformation. However, this study also has some limitations. For each article, I calculated measures of cognitive effort (readability and perplexity) and evocation to emotions (sentiment analysis and appeal to morality). Hidden Colors: Directed by Tariq Nasheed. = x_1, \ldots ,X_p = x_p} \right]e^{\beta _{0j} + \beta _{1j}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pj}X_p}}}{{1 + \mathop {\sum }\nolimits_{l = 1}^{J - 1} e^{\beta _{0l} + \beta _{1l}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pl}X_p}}}$$, $$p_j\left( x \right): = \frac{{{\Bbb P}\left[ {Y = J\left| {X_1} \right. The EU is responsible for the flood of terrorist and Islamists into France (). In total, the database consists of 213,177 articles. Lewandowsky, Schwarz, van der Linden, and others have shown that prebunking can neutralize misinformation on climate change, vaccines, and other issues (Global Challenges, Vol. For example, after a man drove a van along a Toronto sidewalk in 2018, killing 10 people and hurting 16, misinformation 5. 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